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Machiavelli was not an amoral realist, but a kind of perfectionist?
In the title to an essay written late in his life, Bendetto Croce referred to Machiavelli as "an enigma that perhaps will never be resolved."[1] The speculation -both scholarly and propagandistic- of more than four centuries would appear to confirm this judgment on the character of Machiavelli though, even to the point of arguing for the elimination of Croce's qualifying "perhaps". There can't be a more difficult task then to prove on whether Machiavelli was an amoral realist or a perfectionist. Before starting my argument I feel its necessary to distinguish between what is an amoral realist and what is a perfectionist, though the distinction, to me, between the two is extremely fine and can be confusing at times.
Perfectionism has acquired a number of meanings in contemporary moral and political philosophy. The term is used to refer to an account of the good human life, an account of human well-being, a moral theory and an approach to politics. Historically, perfectionism is associated with ethical theories that characterize the human good in terms of the development of human nature.[2] Speaking generally, perfectionist writers advance an objective account of the human good and then develop an account of ethics and/or politics that is informed by this account of the good. Different perfectionist writers propose different accounts of the human good and arrive at different ethical and political conclusions. John Rawls sees perfectionism as the enemy of the liberty and autonomy that are the birth right of all individuals in a just and liberal society.[3] Perfectionism, so understood, contrasts with both hedonism and desire satisfaction of the human good. Perfectionists' account of the human good can allow that some goods are experiential, but they reject the hedonistic thesis that all intrinsic human goods consist in pleasurable sensations or attitudes. John Rawls characterises perfectionism in terms of the maximum "achievement of human excellence in art, science and culture." Derek Parfit likewise characterizes perfectionism in terms of the achievement or realisation of "the best things in life"
The realist tradition on the other hand, however, has always laid claim to a species of scientific rigor. The arguments of the classical realists are used to asses the claims of contemporary realism to be an advance over classical realism and to investigate the relation between science and politics and the ethical issues raised by realism in general.
Machiavelli has been condemned as a ‘teacher of evil' and praised as a clear sighted ‘amoral realist'. What does it mean do describe a person as "Machiavellian"? Bernhard Klein states that the term is "still used to describe any politician whose actions appear motivated by cunning, duplicity, lack of scruples and bad faith, who seems to subscribe to the infamous maxim ‘The end justifies the means'. Academic thinkers such as Leo Strauss adhered firmly to the view that "Machiavelli was a ‘teacher in evil'; The Prince literally is a lesson in wickedness.
The Prince is not a textbook for the wicked but an honest, realistic view of humanity and the ways of ruling people effectively. Machiavelli presents the world as it is and advices accordingly-and his skill at both makes his most famous work laudable; a factual, empirical achievement. The Prince is intentionally an amoral work that does not really seek to intrude on the moral sphere one way or another and this amorality accounts for why some see it as-wicked and others as realists and I think Machiavelli deserves more praise for his discoveries than disparagement for his supposed ethics. Perhaps the most comprehensive short exposition of what might be called the orthodox view of Machiavelli comes from Leo Strauss, as he introduces his Thoughts on Machiavelli. Strauss produces a devastating list of charges, which include, amongst several, that ‘the prince ought to exterminate the families of rulers whose territory they wish to possess securely; prince ought to murder their opponents rather than to confiscate their property, since those who have been robbed, but not those who are dead, can think of revenge; a victorious general who fears that his prince might not reward him properly, may punish him for his anticipated ingratitude by raising the flag of rebellion; if one has to choose between inflicting several injuries and inflicting light injuries, one ought to inflict sever injuries; one ought not to say to someone who wants to kill ‘Give me your gun, I want to kill you with it' ,but merely, ‘give me you gun' , once you have the gun in your hand, you can satisfy your desire. Therefore, it is clear from this list of charges that the advice Machiavelli gives is not constrained by the boundaries of conventional morality. Those who would argue against defending Machiavelli by moral aggregation would perhaps still be inclined to ask why it is that such a ‘teacher of evil' happens to teach so much good. Reason for this lies in the fact that The Prince is neither moral nor immoral, but amoral. Machiavelli is not attempting to set out the courses of action everyone should follow in order to be moral, and nor is he setting out to defend an ethics of selfishness and cruelty.
What he offers is empirical guidance in those ways experience and history have led him to believe a prince can retain power and earn glory. This amoral realism is not a repudiation of morality, but simply something different from a text on ethics as ethics is simply not the chief concern. The question of whether an action is right or wrong is subordinated to the question of whether or not it will lead to a firmer grip on power for the prince. Machiavelli did not assert that men would be wrong to seek moral guidance, he merely did not attempt to offer it himself and this can be used as evidence to state that Machiavelli was not a perfectionist but an amoral realist. However things are not so simple for the reasons explained later on. Machiavelli's aim was to give truthful advice, declining to allow normative judgments' to interfere. Machiavelli may have set to work as an empirical scholar, but the consequence was that he broadcast advice that is morally disheartening and which schools the unscrupulous in how to stay at the top. The Prince appears to advance to what would now be called Social Darwinism, an approach by which good and bad leader are sifted and the very different consequences for each are determined. Machiavelli's Social Darwinism does not damn weak and ‘unfit' people, but weak and unfit rulers. Machiavelli's prince appears to be a committed, determined ruler who lives, sleeps and breathes governance: like philopoemen of the Achaeans, ever contemplating military maneuvers'. , like Alexander the Great, Caesar and Scipio, always reading the history eminent men so as to imitate them. Those who are not up to the job will fail. Machiavelli is thought of as a cunning, unscrupulous and cynical manipulator but nothing could be further from the truth. He, no doubt, was an amoral realist who saw the world around him as it was and did not mince words when describing it. He despaired of the short-sighted selfishness of those he served and tried to make his readers aware of the baseness of most people's motives. The logic of Machiavelli's political amorality has three levels of consequences. First, the prince need not worry whether he adheres to the rules of conventional morality. If all men were good,' he wrote, ‘this precept would not be good; but because men are wretched creatures who would not keep their word to you, you need not your word to them'. The second level of Machiavelli's amoral logic says that one ought, in fact, to violate morality whenever that serves a political purpose. Therefore, he wrote, ‘If a prince wants to maintain his rule he must learn how to be virtuous, and to make use of this or not according to need'. The third degree of political amorality actually prohibits the prince from endangering himself by adherence to the rules of ordinary morality. ‘I know everyone will agree,' he wrote, ‘that it would be laudable if a prince possessed all those qualities deemed to be good…that, because of conditions in the world, princes cannot have those qualities, or observe them completely. ‘A new prince, of all rulers,' Machiavelli asserts in the midst of this entire moral demolition, ‘finds it impossible to avoid a reputation for cruelty, because of the abundant dangers inherent in a newly won State. These inherent dangers, of course, have from the outset been themselves life-threatening, and since the ‘wise prince should rely on what he controls, not on what he cannot control.
Machiavelli, however, represents a realist view of power. To Machiavelli, humans are deluded by shadows on the cave wall, humans are animals. In his main work, Il Politics, Machiavelli gives a view of politics and power that is amoral: the ends justify the means, and human nature is brutish, prone to evil and avarice. Some argue that the Prince was a satire, or perhaps a critique of Cesare Borgi . Others believe, as a serious read of The Prince would suggest, that Borgia was for Machiavelli the perfect ruler. Those who look for his other theoretical works and see a different Machiavelli may see The Prince as something not meant in the way we take it, but those who read some of Machiavelli's plays, such as Mandragola see in his character a very cynical view of human nature, something which is obvious in The Prince. Still others think Machiavelli was just trying to get in good with the Medici family, who distrusted his republican root. I believe The Prince was a serious work, and moreover, it is not in contradiction to the other works. Rather he addressed a specific set of conditions, in which the "moral" or proper ends were, in his opinion, unachievable without an amorality of the means. This is where I think he starts moving toward a perfectionist column.
[1] " Una questione che forse non si chiuderà mai, " V Quaderni della ‘ Critica ( July, 1949, no~14. 1-9)
[2] Writers as diverse as Aristotle, Aquinas, Spinoza, Marx, and T.H. Green are perfectionist in this sense.
[3] "Perfectionism and Politics" (Published in Ethics, 111, No. 1 (October 2000) Richard J. Arneson).
About the Author
Barrister Waqas Sarki did his bachelors in law from the Univerity of Manchester in 2008 and was called to the bar, at the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn, on 22nd July 2010. He has been a legal advisor to a multi-million corporate firm for the last 2 years and is a specialist in Corporate and Commercial Law. During his time in the private sector he has brokered several settlements between his clients and the public sector, on the issues relating to Information Governance Laws.
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